American War effort in Vietnam Essay

The Vietnam War is viewed by the majority as one of the worst periods in American history. The Americans moved into Vietnam in 1954 under the pretence of fighting against an â€Å"evil and aggressive Communist regime†1. The government stated the Domino Theory as a reason for involving themselves in someone else’s war, whereby if America did not stop Vietnam from falling to Communism then other countries would follow, and American liberty, free enterprise and security would be put at risk. It is hard to define one important reason for the American’s defeat in Vietnam. There are many factors that explain it: restrictions on the military and tactics that the American army employed, coupled with the strength of the North Vietnamese Army. The war also cost a lot of money, which meant inflation, tax rises and America’s economy suffering. The collapse of the home front and the lack of support from the media was cause for the presidents to retreat and was another reason for the undermining of the war effort. This information from home often leaked to the front line and caused the deterioration of troops’ morale, also, the government was often criticised for not understanding the political nature of Vietnam, where no-one really understand or cared about the term democracy. The general consensus by most historians is that the military tactics employed played a large part in determining the outcome of the war. Justin Wintle’s ‘The Vietnam Wars’ concentrates on the military aspects, and suggests that while the Americans had a superior military and equipment, the tactics they used were useless due to the environment in Vietnam – Westmoreland’s search-and-destroy operations would have been an effective opposition to guerrilla combat, ‘or would have done had they been able to take place in a sealed environment ventilated by the Ho Chi Minh Trail’2, proving that the tactics used were inappropriate and not well thought out by the army generals. Even Major John Fenzel in the US Army agreed that defeat was due to tactical failures, which meant that they could not compete with the ‘multi-faceted strategy of insurgency and protraction’3 of the North Vietnamese army. General Bruce Palmer Jr. stated that Vi etnam was ‘†¦a devilishly clever mixture of conventional warfare fought somewhat unconventionally and guerrilla warfare fought in the classical manner’4. It was not just that the American strategy was ineffective; it was ineffective  in the conditions and against a strong North Vietnamese army perfectly adapted to their environment. Due to the absolute strength of American air power, the Americans were lucky enough to keep a good death ratio where the number of Vietnamese deaths heavily outnumbered their own, however the fact that the war dragged on for so long greatly deteriorated the troops’ morale. Obvious tactical failures were the Phoenix Program under Nixon where troops agents infiltrated into Vietnamese peasant districts to detect activists, and while its effect was obvious, its methods were seen to be violent and news of innocents being murdered soon reached home. Operation Apache Snow, where American soldiers attacked Vietcong taking refuge on Ap Bia, now more commonly known as ‘Hamburger Hill’. Troops attacked with fire-fight, hand-to-hand combat and aerial bombardment, however this only served to increase opposition to the war, so ‘Hamburger Hill’ was abandoned, which impelled Senator Edward Kennedy to label the operation as ‘senseless and irrseponsible’5. Morale among the troops was also decreasing. When tactics looked successful, morale was high. But as strategies resorted to a degree of barbarism with innocents being killed and bombing raids, news of lack of support from the home front reached the front line and the drawn out nature of the war ensured that morale soon deteriorated. Also, the experience of war was reasonably comfortable, as Saunders points out in ‘Vietnam and the USA’; soldiers spent a considerable amount of time away from the front line and in Japan or Saigon for ‘Rest and Recuperation’, this obviously led to an ‘air of  unreality and disorientation’6, where drug abuse was common. This lack of morale led to  even more barbarism, one marine unit was known to say- ‘our emotions were very low  because we’d lost a lot of friends†¦so†¦we gave it to them†¦whatever was moving was going  to move no more – especially after (our) 3 days of blood and guts in the mud’7. There were other factors, which led to this low morale. It was often frustrating for some soldiers as men in authority were not always as experienced as them; this meant that there appeared to be little structure to strategies, leading to confusion. They also could not capture the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese, with the hamlet programme set-up by Diem, and the bombing of Vietnam by Americans, the Vietnamese peasants disliked American troops. However, it is easy to understand the Americans lack of reaction to the Vietnamese, as the circumstances of the war were obviously frustrating, and they felt that they were fighting someone else’s war, resenting the American government for sending them. This dislike for those who they were supposed to be helping meant that it was a difficult task for the American troops to win the war. The North Vietnamese Army (NVA) on the other hand were very well suited to the surroundings and made the most of their environment. The situation in Vietnam appeared to be, as James Cameron stated, ‘from the moment the US prepared its first bomb in the North of Vietnam, she welded the nation together unshakeably. Every bomb was a bonus for Ho Chi Minh’8. It seemed that whatever hindered the American army only strengthened the Vietnamese. What the Americans did not realise was that the blitzes from firepower united the North Vietnamese. Chinese and Soviet aid meant that the NVA could enjoy modern  hardware: rocket launchers, anti-aircraft batteries, mortars and flamethrowers. The view shared by many historians is that ‘they could be defeated but they could never be vanquished’9, they had great perseverance and their tactics were clearly laid out, in summary: Americans attack and NVA retreat Americans camp and NVA raid Americans tire and NVA attack Americans retreat and NVA pursue The structure of the army also seemed more advanced than that of the Americans. Someone carrying supplies and ammunition maintained each unit. Structure was built upon the idea of ‘cells’ of three or ten men, so if they were discovered or captured, they would not lose large numbers of troops. This also meant that they could move around more stealthily and communication around the cell was easier. The NVA became expert at setting booby traps and it became hard for Americans to effectively fight them as they attacked enemy units and then quietly disappeared into the jungle. The communists were also better at winning over the Vietnamese population. Their combination of brutality and kindness allowed them to gain the support of the Vietnamese peasants. This obviously gave them an advantage over the American Army. The actions of the American Presidents also went some way in undermining the war effort. Eisenhower had restricted involvement in the war, rejecting any idea of bombing the country –  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœyou boys must be crazy. We can’t use those awful things against Asians for the second time in less than ten years.’10. While he did give support to the French in their Vietnam battle,  Eisenhower saw that sending troops in would be unwise. When Kennedy became president, he increased America’s commitment to Vietnam, needing a more adventurous foreign policy  and bigger defence expenditure. The war is seen as ‘Johnson’s War’ as it was Johnson who  started major escalation. With the Gulf of Tonkin resolution, it appeared that the population  was behind Johnson and his efforts to send more troops to Vietnam, but towards the end of his term, public opinion had swayed and their was  pressure to start bringing soldiers back home. Nixon had initially supported the war, but soon he was under a lot of pressure to allow fewer troops out, and bring more back. Nixon soon began to organise secret bombing campaigns so that he could fulfil his own wishes concerning Vietnam without losing the public’s confidence. Nixon was able to manipulate the situation by making announcements of troop withdrawals at times so that it would decrease opposition. Eventually, Nixon ended the war due to public opposition, the realisation that the war was not winnable, the need for a vote-winning action, and opposition from Congress. The main problem with the presidents is that they seemed to have their own personal agenda for Vietnam, knowing little about the actual situation. After a meeting with, Johnson and Kennedy, a State Department expert said – ‘†¦I was asked to say something at the end of the meeting and they looked at me absolutely helpless, the whole group of them. There was not a single person there who knew what he was talking about†¦They simply did not understand the identification of nationalism and Communism’11, this issue was also brought up at a National Teach-In, ‘the obsession of American policymakers with what they see as monolithic Communism has blinded them to the fact that Communism in Asia has adapted itself to nationalism’12. Those in power often fooled the public and therefore undermined American involvement in the war, as there was a good kill ratio, where it looked like the American forces were winning, officials could fool themselves into believing it would be a victory; however the Tet Offensive showed the reality of the situation. Presidents seemed to be set on destroying Communism, being blind to the  fact that building a feasible South Vietnam was outside of America’s power, what was needed was for them to understand Vietnam and ‘work with rather than against this powerful forceâ₠¬â„¢13. The majority of Vietnamese did not ‘even know the difference between communism and democracy’14. The Vietnam War was the first war with free press, so the media played a huge part in undermining the war effort, undermining public opinion and demoralising American troops in Vietnam. The media had started off supporting the American presidents and their decisions about the war,  however, their support soon decreased as news of the brutal reality of the war and the campaigns that had been covered-up leaked to the press. Press coverage was a major factor in ensuring lack of public support, and therefore the retreat of presidents from Vietnam. One notable example is the issue of ‘Life Magazine’, which saw a full edition with two hundred and forty-two photographs of the soldiers killed in Vietnam during just one week of fighting. As well as showing the hardships which Americans had to endure in Vietnam, the media showed ‘footage of the bulldozing of human carcasses into mass graves, the napalming of children, and the ravaging of villages by American soldiers’15, so that the public began to dislike soldiers, causing many men to try to dodge the draft. Not only did the media allow public opposition to spread, it also undermined the military; less people were drafted into the  war, low morale, and secrets were leaked to the press from troops in Vietnam which the media was able to exploit. The NVA would then be able to see this and could expect attacks. The images that were on television were so powerful that they have been used as one of the main reasons why America was defeated due to the impression left on the public. Although, Riddick argues against this analysis – ‘while the media can influence public opinion, inVietnam media reportage merely reflected, and did not create the national mood of  disillusionment’16. The government, however, understood how influential the loss of media  support could be. In February 1968, a CBS reporter, Cronkite, left an aside not meant for broadcast – ‘what the hell is going on? I thought we were winning this war?’ President Johnson supposedly said – ‘If we’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost Mr. Average citizen’. In order to cope with the expansion in Vietnam, US financial aid was greatly increased, Washington had, for example, sent out approximately $2billion worth of aid in the time running up to the Paris Peace Agreement. The war was costing money, and started to interfere with the economy. Johnson,  however, would not admit to the extent of expenditure in case Congress decided to cut budgets on his domestic programmes. In 1965 the government deficit was $1.6billion, in 1968, it was $25.3billion, Johnson had not requested the required wartime tax increases. This resulted in inflation, and eventually taxpayers became indignant and they increased the pressure on Johnson to put an end to the war, or to take a different approach. The war was a great hindrance on America’s economic stature. It denied funds to America and other needs, such as hospitals and education. In the early sixties, Vietnam was popular; patriotism was strong in a confident nation, who assumed that they had the necessary weapons and firepower to assure victory. Opinions on the war differed according to geography and age. The Southern and Mid-West counties were conservative and patriotic whereas coastal counties were liberal and democratic. The older generations supported the war because of the effect of World War II, which had brought prosperity. The younger generations had more liberal attitudes. They were concerned with freedom of speech and self-expression. Conscription also made the war unpopular with young adults, which resulted in low morale in the army and a fall in the number of troops as draft papers were torn up. Further into the sixties, anti-war sentiment was growing in America, the turning point was the Tet Offensive, where the public was able to see the reality of the war and the fact that they were not winning. Soldiers returning home were jeered at and called ‘baby-killer’, and trust in the American government was lacking. At the onset of war, those who opposed it could be split directly into three categories: ‘people with left-wing political opinions†¦pacifists who opposed all wars†¦liberals who believed that the best way of stopping the spread of Communism was by encouraging democratic rather than authoritarian governments’17. The fact that presidents had decided to use chemical warfare especially upset the public as they saw images and heard stories of innocent men, women and children dying as a result. The mid-sixties was also a time of black rights. There were disproportionate numbers of blacks fighting in Vietnam, and it seemed unfair for America to expect blacks to fight this war for ‘freedom’ when they enjoyed little of this at home. Historians saw the blacks as ‘comparing themselves with the Vietnamese: both were, in their view, victims of a  racist government’18. An International War Tribunal was set up and they, along with other critics, claimed that ‘US behaviour in Vietnam is comparable to the atrocities committed by the Nazis in WW2’19. In 1967, the ‘Vietnam Veterans Against the War’ was formed, one member stated ‘I hope that someday I can return to Vietnam and help to rebuild the country we tore apart’20. Also, anti-war leaders claimed that if troops were not withdrawn from Vietnam, the government might  need to bring them home to stop a revolution. Apart from these comments to the government, several protests were taking place. By 1965, organised rallies were being held in approximately forty American cities and a few foreign capitals. There were a lot of students  protests as the younger generations refused to accept the authority of the government. Groups  against the war were dedicated to protesting for the withdrawal of troops, putting a lot of pressure on the government. Violent protests started to become more common as more  atrocities became apparent in the press, specifically the incident of My Lai where about 400  innocents were murdered, which damaged the morale argument about the need to save Vietnam. In November 1965, Norman Morrison imitated the actions of Buddhist monk in Saigon by setting fire to himself out side the Pentagon. A protest at Kent University where four students were killed by open fire brought the message to the public that ‘loss of life as a result of the Vietnam War†¦was no longer confined to Indchina’21. There was still a considerable amount of support for the governments policies, however, even a minority in America can protest vociferously and make a huge difference, especially when figured of respect and authority  speak out. For example, Senator J. William Fullbright spoke out against ‘that arrogance of power which has inflicted, weakened and in some cases destroyed great nations in the past’22, Martin Luther King also spoke out about how ‘the Great Society has been shot down on the battlefield of Vietnam’23. Public pressure meant that in 1968, Johnson had lost confidence in his decisions and his war and he announced he was calling of bombing raids and was prepared to open discussions on the possibilities of peace talks. However, the war was prolonged into Nixon’s term as president, which served only to strengthen the disquiet against the war. As C. Reich stated, ‘the War seemed to sum up the evils of our society: destruction of people†¦environment†¦war by the rich and powerful against the poor and helpless, justification based on abstract rationality, hypocrisy and lies’24. The presidents knew that unless public opinion was swayed towards them and the war, they would not be able to stay in power. By the time Vietnam ended, it was clear that a major reason for withdrawal was down to public opinion. There is no doubt that public opinion went a long way in ensuring that presidents retreated and the war effort undermined. Opposition resulted in a decline in troops and protests throughout America which demonstrated the unrest which politicians had to act on. However, there are other factors which add to this to explain America’s defeat, the failure of the American army against a strong Vietcong force, the role of the media, the economic situation due to mass expenditure, and the blindness of the government to the real situation in Vietnam. Saunders – ‘The USA and Vietnam’ (p.2) 2 Wintle – ‘The Vietnam Wars’ (p. 136) 3 Major John Fenzel – ‘Vietnam: We Could Have Won’ 4 General Bruce Palmer Jnr. – ‘The 25-Year War: America’s Military Role in Vietnam’ (p.176) 5 Wintle – ‘The Vietnam Wars’ (p.165) 6 Saunders – ‘The USA and Vietnam 1945 – 75’ (p.85) 7 Ibid. (p.89) 8 James Cameron – ‘Witness’ 9 Wintle – ‘The Vietnam Wars’ (p.165) 10 Saunders – ‘The USA and Vietnam 1954 – 75’ (p.32) 11 State Department Report 1963 12 National Teach-In – Gettleman – ‘Vietnam: History, Documents, and Opinions on a Major World Crisis’ (p.411) 13 Gettleman – ‘Vietnam: History, Documents, and Opinions on a Major World Crisis’ (p.411) 14 Vietnam Veterans Against the War Statement – John Kerry to the Senate Committee of Foreign Relations – 1971 15 Franklin H. Bruce – ‘From Realism to Virtual Reality: Images of America’s Wars’ (p.441) 16 Riddick – ‘The Vietnam War’ 17 A Vietnam Overview – www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VietnamWar.htm 18 Higgins – ‘Vietnam’ (p.101) 19 A Vietnam Overview – www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VietnamWar.htm 20 Ibid. 21 Wintle – ‘The Vietnam Wars’ (p.168) 22 Ibid. (p.157) 23 Ibid. (p.161) 24 C. Reich – ‘The Greening of America’ (p.194)

After the Dance

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Branding and International Advertising Term Paper

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Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Culture - Essay Example In the early years, immigrants shared a common ethnic and religious profile: white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant (McDonald & Balgopal, 1998). The first wave of European immigrants ‘melted’ into the mainstream American culture easily due to this similarity of the ethnic background. Israel Zangwill’s concept of America as a ‘melting pot,’ in which immigrants of diverse ethnicities assimilated into one homogenous cultural identity, pertains to this age. Present, second wave of immigrants is largely from the developing nations of Asia and Latin America. They bring with them a diversity of languages, customs, distinct physical traits, religions and ethnicity, which does not submit to easy assimilation. Today, â€Å"there is more emphasis on preserving ones ethnic identity, of finding ways to highlight and defend ones cultural roots† (Booth, 1998). America is now a multicultural ‘Mosaic,’ in which various groups preserve their ethnic identities and yet remain a part of the larger American way of life. The Chinese exemplify this ‘mosaic’. This group retains its ethnic identity and also makes significant contributions to the American culture. Steven Chu, Samuel C. C. Ting, and others are Nobel Prize winners. (â€Å"Chinese American Culture†, 2010). Amy Tan is one of today’s most popular American writers. Chinese take-away is as much a part of American cuisine as apple pie. The teachings of Confucius are part of the curriculum of many American universities. The benefits of Chinese meditation, green tea, and acupuncture are a part of American life. Chinese calligraphy, character tattoos, and martial arts have permeated American culture. In this age of immense diversity, American culture is no longer a ‘melting pot’ which blends all its composite groups into a homogenous whole. There is no single American identity. â€Å"Ethnicity

Freedom in Various Aspects of Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Application of the principles of health and safety to the operating Essay

Application of the principles of health and safety to the operating theatre environment - Essay Example The operating department practitioner (ODP) should be alert to any fears or apprehensions expressed by the patient and transmit such information to the surgeon (Lyons, 1997). The patient and his family should be encouraged to communicate freely with the physician. The preparation and care of the patient before surgery has one major goal to promote the best possible physical and psychological state of the patient prior to surgical therapy. To achieve this goal, the patient’s individual needs must be ascertained and his strengths and limitations evaluated. A plan of care can then be developed to assist the patient in adjusting physically and emotion ­ally to the surgical experience. Preparation for surgery should begin as soon as the patient is told that an operation is necessary. The anticipation of any surgical procedure will result in an emotional reaction  ­of some kind, and much can be done to allevi ­ate fears prior to admission as well as during hospitalization. The patient’s reaction will depend on many factors, including his person ­ality structure and his pattern of reaction to stressful events in the past. A surgical operation is a stressful situation in which the patient may believe that he is in danger of acute pain, serious damage to the body, disability, and death. In addition there is a fear of the unknown. This can be compli ­cated by fear of anesthesia or fear of separa ­tion from activities, family, and friends. The average patient also worries about financial problems, family responsibilities, and em ­ployment status. Anxiety will usually increase as the time for surgery draws near. The ODP can assist the patient, his fami ly, and surgical personnel by listening to the patient and helping him to verbalize his fears. Often the patient only wants the opportunity to acknowledge his fears to a caring, under ­standing, and accepting person (Saylor, 1975). The evening before surgery the

Quantitative Methodology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quantitative Methodology - Assignment Example The researchers applied the social compensation hypothesis to argue that the lonely and society anxious children often turn to online communication in the quest to find new friends as well as be in touch with their families (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010). The hypothesis also explained that online forms of communication are an avenue for forming and maintaining relationships. Data was collected quantitatively using a survey and questionnaires where the participants included the amount of time they spend online and the topics they discuss (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010). Convenience sampling was used to get the best students from the selected 626 students so as to get the best students that would give the correct information on the use of the internet. The independent variable was the loneliness and social anxiety among children and adolescents while the dependent was online communications as a form of maintaining relationships with families, friends, and even foreigners (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010). Data was gathered via the use of survey where the participants were subjected to a summarized version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale as well as an shortened gauge of the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010).   Students also filled questionnaires in their free time. Chi-square analysis was applied to assess the statistical inconsistencies between the loneliness and social anxiety and regularity of the use of the internet for communication purposes (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010).  ANOVA was also used to estimate the variances between the time used in online communication by the children with self-reported solitude and social apprehension and the students without (Bonetti, Campbell & Gilmore, 2010). The ethical guideline of obtaining consent before conducting research

Criminology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Criminology - Essay Example (Beck 2006).Two statistical programs to measure the magnitude, nature, and impact of crime administered by the U.S. Department of Justice are the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The purpose, focus, and method of these two programs cover different aspects of crime, whereas, the information they produce gives a comprehensive picture about the Nation’s crime problem. The UCR Program, directly under FBI, compiles data from monthly law enforcement reports or individual crime incident records received by FBI, which is further scrutinized and compared with previous monthly submission for discrepancy. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) has been formulated after intensive research by Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) and the crime data collected from nationally representative sample by the U.S. Bureau of Census, through personnel household interviews. The data is individualized, covers individual information as well as feed-back on the performance of criminal justice system, and generally projects those crimes that were not reported to law enforcement. Though NCVS is designed to complement the UCR program there are Major differences in UCR and NCVS. UCR provides a reliable quantitative statistics for law enforcement, whereas NCVS projects qualitative statistics on previously unavailable information about crime, as the two programs measure non-identical set of crimes. In addition, crime definitions and scale adopted to calculate crime rates differ from each other, resulting in statistical discrepancies and estimation. Major sources for Crime data collection in the United States are (1) Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The National Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program is a nationwide statistical collaboration in the United States to collect accurate

Health and Social Care Essay Example for Free

Health and Social Care Essay Explain how a working relationship is different from a personal relationship 1. A working relationship is different because of boundaries, professional codes of conduct, employer policies and procedures. In your working relationship you would be friendly have a different approach treat with equality you would know your role and responsibility you would not share personal information as you friends. 2. You work with different people doctors family colleagues give examples of how these are different 3. As this sets out boundaries in your job role , enables you to know your role and responsibilities, knowing your own level of competence and skills, to know your job description Describe two types of working relationship in health and social care settings Relationships are probably the most involved and emotionally charged area of our lives. From the moment we are born we form relationships, each one requiring something different from us and giving us something different in return. In the health and social care setting there are many different working relationships. These relationships will include: colleagues, manager, other professionals such as doctors/district nurse, service users and their family and friends Describe why it is important to adhere to the agreed scope of the job role It is important to adhere to the agreed scope of the job role as this sets out boundaries in your job role, enables you to know your role and responsibilities. Knowing your own level of competence and skills, knowing your job description. How do you access full and up to date details of agreed ways of working in your line of work? Agreed ways of working is working within the rules set out by your employer. Following policies and procedures of the company. Important to have up to date agreed ways of working as there may be changes in policies within the law. Your company may have to implement them to help protect the vulnerable Explain two way it is important agreed ways of working at your work place When people are deeply upset about something, they need to get their story out. This is a basic principle of mediation and one that’s important to remember. Often in a conflict, the parties are so focused on minutiae that they lose sight of the big picture and its implications. As the mediator, you need to bring people back to reality by wrenching their attention away from the grain of sand and having them focus on the whole beach. Doing so may help resolution arrive at a startling speed. Explain two way it is important to work in partnership with others Partnership can be formed between a number of individuals, agencies or organisations with a shared interest. Partnerships are often formed to address specific issues and have a common reason for working together and could often formed to target a short or long term issues. In order to achieve a good partnership partners need to communicate, co-ordinate, co- operate. There are two types of partnership working: multi agency working and integrated working. Multi agency working and an integrated working Identify skills and approaches needed for resolving conflicts Increased understanding: The discussion needed to resolve conflict expands peoples awareness of the situation, giving them an insight into how they can achieve their own goals without undermining those of other people. Increased group cohesion: When conflict is resolved effectively, team members can develop stronger mutual respect, and a renewed faith in their ability to work together. Improved self-knowledge: Conflict pushes individuals to examine their goals in close detail, helping them understand the things that are most important to them, sharpening their focus, and enhancing their effectiveness. Define person centred values Person centred values means the people whom we support are able to be involved and included in every aspect of their care and support. For example: * their needs,* Assessments, * Care delivery, and, * Support planning. EXPLAIN WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO WORK IN A WAY THAT EMBEDS PERSON CENTRED VALUES. It is important to do this as person centred approaches, policies and procedures, as well as care practices should always put the people whom we support at the centre of the day-to-day activities, as well as including the residents and their families in the planning and maintaini ng of this. Explain why risk taking can be part of a person centred approach Taking risks means that you are able to choose and be in control of what you do. You need to ensure that concerns about taking risks is not stopping you living the way you want to. A risk assessment can always be carried out to see if it is possible for someone to do something that they thought would not be possible. Explain how using an individual’s care plan contributes to working in a person centred way Using an individuals care plan will ensure that the persons own needs and wishes are being met, rather than offering them a choice of what is available. Using their care plan, you can build on what they want and see where there are gaps that need to be addressed. How do you find out the history, preferences, wishes and needs of the individual? 1. You need to know their history because it may affect their care plan for example a client (service user) who has been abused will need extra support. This also includes all past health issues and possible behaviour. 2. Part of working for equality and a high standard of care it is essential that client’s wishes are expressed. This is like anyone else on the planet. A major part of the wishes possess involves their deaths i. e. , would they like to buried, would they like someone to have some of their possessions. 3. To be able to formulate a care plan you must first find out what level of care a client needs going on their individual needs. Some clients may need extra support with washing/dressing. Other may need extra therapies such as hydro or music. How do you apply person centred values in day today work taking into account the history, preferences, wishes and needs of the individual? Government policy should be founded on a clear, ambitious and measurable goal to improve the experience of patients and service users and to be delivered by a defined date. Setting an ambitious goal to improve patient experience should be reinforced by enhanced guarantees to patients with complex needs. These guarantees would include an entitlement to an agreed care plan, a named case manager responsible for co-ordinating care, and access to tableware and a personal health budget where appropriate. Explain the importance of establishing consent when providing care or support It is important to establish consent because it is a basic human right for everyone to have the choice. Much of the treatment or support the individual receives is either invasive or personal, so consent is essential as it protects providers against legal challenge. Asking for consent is also part of the codes of practice for social care. Explain what steps to take if consent cannot be readily established A capacity assessment by a qualified professional should be carried out to see if the individual has the capacity to make decisions. These steps should be taken by professionals as stated in five principles set on in the Mental Capacity Act 2005. Describe how active participation benefits an individual Active participation is an approach that enables individuals to be included in their care and have a greater say in how they live their life in ways that matter to them. The benefits of active participation can be divided into primary benefits and secondary benefits. Identify three possible barriers to active participation Physical benefits including greater activity levels. Increased independence and autonomy in what people do. An opportunity for individuals in health and social care settings to have a say in matters of direct concern to their lives. Support an individual to make informed choices Learning to communicate in an effective way and using this to inform the client of all possible choices. Everyone on this planet can communicate in one form or another you need to take the time to learn how every individual client communicates. Explain how you can use agreed risk assessments Process to support the right to make choices People who work in health and social care constitute a large and diverse workforce looking after a predominantly vulnerable population. Employees have the right to work in a healthy and safe workplace, and the people using services are entitled to care and support that is safe and takes their needs, freedom and dignity into account. Explain why a worker’s personal view should not influence an individual’s choices The consequences are that the individual making the choice may make a decision that they might later regret or worse, that has a devastating impact on their life. A person should never make a decision based purely on the personal views of others but should instead gather all the available information and decide for themselves what course of action is right for them its a case of what is good for the goose isnt always good for the gander. Describe how support an individual to question or challenge decisions conceding them that are made by others They have the right to make their own choices and decisions under the Human Rights Act, as long as the decisions they make do not put them at risk of harm or injury and they have the mental capacity to make them. You could support them to question or challenge by speaking on their behalf but you would need to know exactly what their wishes are, and record it for them to sign. Explain how individual identity and self-esteem are linked with well being Because if you dont feel good about yourself or dont have a sense of purpose or identity you tend to feel more depressed therefore your wellbeing will be effected Describe attitudes and approaches that are likely to promote an individual’s well being Using what service in adult care? Do you mean the service OF adult care? Those who give care should show respect for the elderly; be courteous, but also be friendly. Call the person by his/her last name unless invited to use the first. Dont assume that ALL elderly people have forgotten everything they ever knew and are only good at bingo anymore. Support an individual in a way that promotes a sense of identity and self-esteem The first thing is that the person is an individual in their own right you need to understand what they are about and not judge, pick the bright nuggets of information and use this as a a springboard to encourage self-esteem and their self-image. As they talk about themselves you will be able to get a sense of self and where they are in their image. You need to feedback to them what was said as positive rather than the negative if they say Ii am always failing reply with really, you at least have the guts to try something out of your comfort zone not everyone can do it the negatives must be turned to positives but it takes time and consistency and as their self-worth and esteem improves you will find they will need less and less re-enforcing Demonstrate ways to contribute to an environment that promotes wellbeing Donation centres have drop-off points for returning old things for sale to help charitable areas. The scouts, Goodwill stores do these things. Roadside, creek, gulley, beach and parks welcome clean-up crews: volunteers who help together to pick up careless refuse, windblown trash. Identify legislation relating to general health and safety in a health or social care work setting Legislations/codes of practice relating to general health and safety in a health or social care work setting are: The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974; Riddor 1995, COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health); Manual Handling operations regulations 1992; Health And Safety (First aid regulations 1981); Fire protection (Workplace) Regulations 1997; Food Safety Act 1990; Personal Protective Equipment and Management of Health and safety at work regulations 1999. Describe two main points of the health and safety policies and procedures agreed with the employer The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 is the main piece of legislation that covers work related health and safety in the workplace. The main points of the health and safety policies and procedures agreed with the employer are Minimum handling and lifting; Ensure handling and lifting is carried out correctly and safely; Making sure all materials/equipment that is needed to be used is handled, stored and used safely; To be aware of any potential hazards and risks and how to reduce to liability of any accidents occurring; To be responsible for your own welfare and the welfare of others you are looking after; To wear the correct PPE at all times; Outline the main health and safety responsibilities of: Self The employer or manager Other in the work setting The main responsibilities for yourself whilst at work in a health and social care setting are to not put yourself or others at risk, to report any hazards or unsafe conditions, to co-operate with your employers, to not tamper with or misuse equipment provided, to attend training, be aware of and follow policies and procedures. Identify tasks relating to health and safety that should not be carried out without special training It generally takes special training to repair teeth. Prescribing medicine takes special training also. Explain how to access additional support and important relating to health and safety 1. Protect service users from harm and abuse 2. Be personally fit at work 3. Maintain health and safety at work 4. Assess risk associated with work 5. Report incidents at work Exampling why it is important to access health and safety hazards posed but the working set or by particular activities Than the individual will know how to behave when it comes to that specific situation Explain how and when to report potential health and safety risks that have been identified You should report it immediately to your supervisor. You do not need to wait for an inspection team to come by. In fact, health and safety legislation requires employees to report hazards to their supervisor. Explain how risk assessments can help address dilemmas between rights and health and safety concerns This follows from the previous dilemma question. Carrying out a risk assessment supports the individual to have their choice met in the safest way possible. For example, Freda doesnt want to use her Zimmer frame any more. A risk assessment might show her that she cant walk safely without some support, however she can manage with two sticks and she agrees to compromise. You have supported her rights of choice and kept her as safe as you can under your duty of care. Describe different types of accidents and sudden illness that may occur in own work setting Cuts and burns etc. in the kitchen, falls, back injuries though poor lifting techniques, strokes, heart attacks, diabetic emergencies, asthma attacks, allergic reactions and so on. Outline the procedures to be followed if an accident or sudden illness should occur Procedures to be followed: ensuring and maintaining safety for individuals concerned and others e. g.clearing the area, safely moving equipment if possible; remaining calm; sending for help; assessing the individual for injuries; administering basic first aid if necessary and if trained to do so; staying with the injured/sick individual until help arrives; observing and noting any changes in condition; providing a full verbal report to relevant medical staff or others; completing a full written report and relevant documentation e. g. acci dent report, incident report; understanding the policies, procedures and agreed ways of working for the work setting Identify legislation that relates to moving and handling This remains the basis of health and safety legislation, and Sets out the general duties which employers have towards employees and members of the public, and employees have to themselves and to each other (HSE, 1996) HSE leaflet Health and Safety Regulation (HSC 13) 1996 The Act states that employers must ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of their employees whilst at work and any other persons affected by their business activities. The Act is a general piece of legislation and not specific to moving and handling so is not considered here in detail. Explain principles for moving and handling equipment and other objects safely The Manual Handling Operations Regulations define it as any transporting or supporting of a load (including the lifting, putting down, pushing, pulling, carrying or moving thereof) by hand or by bodily force. In effect, any activity that requires an individual to lift, move or support a load, will be classified as a manual handling task. Identify three hazardous substances and materials that may be found in the working setting Asphyxiates Pesticides Medicines Cosmetics or Substances produced in the chemical processes Storing hazardous substances Using hazardous substances Substituting it with another substance which presents less, or no risk; Using another process which doesnt create a hazardous form of that substance. Disposing of hazardous substances and materials asbestos lead-acid batteries used engine oils and oil filters oily sludge’s solvents and solvent-based substances chemical wastes pesticides fluorescent light tubes Starting Good practice in health and safety is good for your business – and its the law. HSE is here to help – our online advice and tools can help save you time and effort getting started. Spreading Outline emergency procedures to be followed in the event of a fire in the work setting How you react in the event of fire depends on how well you have prepared for a fire emergency. Therefore, departments should ensure that all employees are familiar with the procedure to follow in the event of an emergency as outlined in the Universitys Emergency Plan. Explain why it is important to have security systems for recording and storing information in a health and social care setting Mainly because of HIPPA (Health Insurance Accounting and Portability Act) laws, which are designed to protect the medical records information of all patients. Because of HIPPA, hospital computer systems are accessed by employees via passwords, and unless an employee is entering or legitimately looking up information on a patient, that employee is not allowed to snoop through that patients records on a whim. Describe how to access guidance information and advice about handling information in your line of work ineffective or insufficiently trained management unfair treatment unclear job roles poor communications poor work environment lack of equal opportunities bullying and harassment unresolved problems from the past an increase in workload Explain what actions to take at working when there are concerns ever over the recording, storing or sharing of information The Data Protection Act requires you to process personal data fairly and lawfully. This section explains how to comply with this requirement, and gives examples of good practice in handling personal data. Explain employee’s roles and responsibilities in relation to the prevention and control of infection Prevention and control of infection The employee’s role and responsibilities include: To ensure that their own health and hygiene not pose a risk to service users and colleagues To ensure effective hand washing is carried out when working with service users, giving personal care, handling/preparing food. To ensure they use protective clothing provided when needed and appropriate. Explain employer’s responsibilities in relation to the prevention and control of infection Employers’ roles and responsibilities include: making sure employees are aware of the health and safety aspects of their work (e. g. posting information on notice boards, keeping an information file such as COSHH, training, and providing supervision) the need to keep records in relation to infection control using appropriate documentation to ensure that the relevant standards, policies and guidelines are available within the workplace Outline current legislation and regulatory body standards when are relevant to the prevention and control of infection relevant to the preventions and control infection The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 Both employers and employees are responsible for their own actions in the Work place. All reasonable steps should be taken when carrying out your work duties and all staff should have adequate health and safety training, and measures should be taken to ensure that policies and procedures are in place and adhered to. Describe how local and organizational policies relevant to the prevention and control of the infection Employees rights and responsibilities in the relation to the prevention and control of infection are to follow company’s policies and procedures, keep themselves safe and others, report any hazards which could lead to infection, attend relevant courses, use the PPE provided, keeping the work environment clean and tidy and to maintain good personal hygiene Describe procedures and systems relevant to the prevention and control of infection Food handling, waste disposal, cross infection through skin contact or unclean equipment etc., but mainly poor practice. Illness or death, inquiry, loss of registration, criminal charges. Think about PPI, waste disposal, hand washing, cleaning and decontamination, risk assessments etc. Infection protection and control policy, health and safety policy, dealing with accidents and emergencies policy, first aid policy, food hygiene policy, medica tion (handling meds) policy etc. Explain the potential impact of an outbreak of infection on the individual and the organizational Individual Short or long term illness, secondary conditions or further complications, depression, loss of trust in setting, death. Organisation sanctions, loss of reputation and trust, closure, prosecution. Environment distress of staff, individuals and families, unsettled atmosphere though loss of trust, disruption e. g. through an investigation and inspection or decontamination. Define the term risk A situation involving exposure to danger. Outline potential risks of infection within the workplace the first part of your question relates to local policies which are dictated by local peoples views on what is important to them as well as what the professionals think is important local and organisational policies have to consider local need and available local facilities. Describe the processes of carrying out a risk assessment 1. Identify the hazards 2. Decide who might be harmed and how 3. Evaluate the risks and decide on precaution 4. Record your findings and implement them 5. Review your assessment and update if necessary Explain the importance of carrying out a risk assessment Identify hazards. Analyse or evaluate the risk associated with that hazard. Determine appropriate ways to eliminate or control the hazard. In practical terms, a risk assessment is a thorough look at your workplace to identify those things, situations, processes, etc. that may cause harm, particularly to people. After identification is made, you evaluate how likely and severe the risk is, and then decide what measures should be in place to effectively prevent or control the harm from happening. Describe three different types of PPE and three USE PPE is equipment that will protect the user against health or safety risks at work. It can include items such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing, safety footwear and safety harnesses. It also includes respiratory protective equipment (RPE). State current relevant regulations and legislation relating PPE * Gloves- protect hands * Gowns/aprons-protect skin and/or clothing * Masks and respirators- protect mouse/ * Respirators- protect respiratory tract from airborne infectious agents. * Goggles- protect eyes * Face shields- protect face, mouth, nose, and eyes. Describe employer’s responsibilities regarding the use of PPE * It is the responsibility of employees to Ensure that they take reasonable care to protect their own health and safety and that of their co-workers and other persons in or near the workplace; * Report to management any hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions or risks that they identify in their work environment. * Participate in training provided by the employer, regarding the appropriate use, care, and maintenance of PPE. Describe employees in the application and removal of PPE The primary methods for preventing employee exposure to hazardous materials are engineering and administrative controls. Where these control methods are not appropriate or sufficient to control the hazard, personal protective equipment (PPE) is required. A work area assessment is required to determine the potential hazards and select the appropriate PPE for adequate protection. Employees must receive training which includes the proper PPE for their job, when this PPE must be worn, how to wear, adjust, maintain, and discard this equipment, and the limitations of the PPE. All training must be documented. Describe the current practices in the application and removal of PPE PPE such as gloves, aprons and masks are single use items and should be disposed of after each procedure or activity to prevent cross-transmission of micro-organisms. When these items are worn primarily to protect the wearer, the importance of their prompt removal between tasks on the same patient/client or between patients can easily be overlooked and give rise to the possibility of contamination. Describe the current procedures for disposal of used PPE Personal protective equipment – known as ‘PPE’ – is used to protect health care workers while performing specific tasks that might involve them coming into contact with infectious materials. Describe key principles of good personal hygiene Their hands are washed after theyve used the toilet Their genitals and anal area are washed every day Their face is washed daily They’re fully bathed or showered at least twice a week Describe the correct sequence for hand washing and when and why hand washing should be carried out the beginning of the shift preparing, handling and eating food donning gloves any patient contact clean/aseptic procedures entering/leaving clinical areas entering/leaving isolation cubicles preparing/giving medications using a computer keyboard in a clinical area Describe the types of products that should be used for hand washing The main products currently in use are: Soap Aqueous antiseptic hand wash solutions Alcohol-based hand rubs Others including emollient soap substitute, tea tree-oil based solutions, water-based solutions and hand wipes. Describe correct procedures that relates to skin care Work-related skin problems are very common. Although skin problems can happen in most workplaces, certain jobs present a higher risk, e. g. the health and social care sector.

Evolution Of Central Banking In India Finance Essay

Evolution Of Central Banking In India Finance Essay The term paper discusses the role that the Reserve Bank of India has played in the Indian banking system. In the start it talks about the evolution of the bank and its preliminary functions. Then the role of the bank in the last two decades has been studied taking into account structural changes made by the bank so as to adapt to the changing needs of the banks in the dynamic economic environment. It can be observed that the role of the Central bank has changed from being a mere controller to an enabler where it is in a position to make the banking industry make significant contribution to the countrys economy. The paper also discusses the supervisory role of RBI where it is trying to implement the Risk Based method to supervise banks. The paper concludes with the future outlook on the banking industry and how the RBI should evolve further when compared to Central Banks in developed economies across the world. The Reserve Bank of India Evolution of Central Banking in India Reserve bank of India is central bank of India and regulates all the banks of the country. It all started in late 18th century when first time in the history of India Warren Hastings felt that there is need of centralized bank in India. His recommendation didnt reach at a thoughtful conclusion of creating a central body to regulate the banking in India. Later when demand of central bank increased in the 20th century and Lord Keynes also recommended setting up a central bank. Three Presidency banks Presidency bank of Bengal, Presidency bank of Bombay and Presidency bank of Madras merged to form Imperial bank of India to make central bank of India. A bill was brought in the assembly to establish RBI as central bank in in India in 1927 but got refused. In the third round table conference held in the year 1933, it was recommended to set up a free body to control the banking system in India. Due to all these fresh recommendations a fresh bill tabled in the parliament on 22 December 1933 a nd got passed in year 1934. Reserve bank started its function from April 1 1935 under the Reserve bank of India Act 1934. Evolution of Role and Functions Role of RBI is evolved over the period of time. In the initial stages it performed two basic functions. First, it acted as a central point of reserves for Indian banks and timely lend to the banks as they required funds for the operations in the emergency case. Second, it functioned as a regulator for the Indian banks and made sure that they perform their activities in the interest of the depositors. In the years before the independence, banking network and scenario in India was not spread properly all over the country. They were divided in the foreign banks and domestic banks. Foreign banks mostly served to the British companies in India. Domestic banks were only engaged with domestic groups and overall banking intermediation among the banks and the customers was weak. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) or the Central Bank is the backbone of the Indian financial system. It was set up under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. RBI was initially started with 5 crores of capital and governed by directors of central bank. Since its inception in the year 1935, the functions undertaken by the bank have not only increased but have also undergone changes in accordance with the changing needs of the Indian economy. It was in the year 1949 that the bank was nationalized. The role and functions of RBI became critical after independence and worked in order to increase the saving habit in India to generate more wealth for growth of the country. More the people will save and more will be the investment in the projects. Its roles were primarily on the basis of this hypothesis that the poor were unable to save and increase funds on their own. RBI was assisting government to establish institutions to serve the public by providing funds for specific functions. After second five year plan in 1956 government of India came up with decision of establishing financial institutions with assistance of RBI. These institutions were Industrial development bank of India (IDBI), Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI), Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI). They will make credit available and perform their functions at central level and work as apex institutions for such state level and regional institutions. The role of RBI became concentrated after the establishment of these institutions. The Functions of RBI evolved with expansion of banking. RBI played a vital role to make the banking facilities available in the concerned areas. Banking reached to remote areas of the country. SBI was formed in 1955. Imperial bank of India was converted in State bank of India in the year 1955. Then came the period of very critical moves of the Indian banking history when 14 banks were nationalized in 1969 and in 1980 when 6 more banks were nationalized. These bold moves led to the increased network in the rural areas of the country where most of the population was based. The traditional credit was for agriculture and a specialized institution being established in 1963 with name of Agriculture Finance Corporation (AFC) which later converted into NABARD in 1982. The role of RBI expanded after these institutions as these institutions helped the country to evolve with better banking facilities. Functions of Reserve Bank of India These are some basic roles which RBI performs in the country: Issue currency notes: RBI is only authorized government body to issue notes in the country. It has one issuing department to issue notes of 2,5,10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000. One rupee note is issued by the finance ministry of central government. Bank of the Government: RBI is known as the banker or Agent of central government. It holds deposit of the government and pays on the demand of government. It also gives timely advice to the government on the financial policies. RBI issues bonds for the government and manages debt for them with appropriate charges. Bank of the banks: RBI also performs the job of banker for the all the banks in India. All banks who came under RBI act, have to put their cash reserves at the rate called CRR with RBI. RBI will regulate and supervise the operations of banks as soon as they are incorporated under the RBI Act. Banking System Regulator: RBI is responsible for the regulation of Indian banking system. All banks who comes under RBI Act 1949 are bound follow the guidelines issued by RBI. RBI has powers of licensing, management, expansion, inspection and direction in this regard. Clearing House: RBI is responsible for the settlements among the banks. It runs clearing houses in major cities to for the settlements and smooth transaction of cash between banks. Credit Control: Credit Control is another important role that RBI performs. RBI performs credit control duty with the help of qualitative and quantitative instruments. Some qualitative measures are selective credit control, rationing of credit, moral persuasion and direct action. Bank Rate, Cash Reserve Ratio, Statutory Liquidity Ratio, Repo Reverse Repo and Open Market Operations are quantitative instruments to control credit. THE ROLE OF THE BANK POST 1990: In the early 1990s, the country was faced with the crisis of maintaining its diminishing foreign exchange reserves. There was a need to put in place a new economic framework and policies so as to deal with this situation. This period saw the introduction of economic reforms which made the environment more conducive for the functioning of the private sector. During this period it was the Reserve Bank of India which was entrusted with the task of regulating the new system that was put in place, bringing in technology to strengthen, modernize and make the functioning of banks more efficient, introducing varied monetary policy instruments and management of currency. As of today, keeping in line with the changes that need to be incorporated in the functioning of the Central Bank, the bank is divided into 27 departments where each department is responsible for policy making in a particular area assigned to it. Depending on the requirement the bank has in the past added new departments and closed down some of the existing departments. The Central Board has the responsibility of the proper functioning of the Central Bank. The aim of the Central Bank is to ensure stability of prices while supporting economic growth. The role of the central Bank has evolved over the years from being the implementer of the monetary policy to include other functions such as regulation and supervision of the countrys banking system. Moreover it has also gained greater autonomy in its functioning with regards to managing its own personnel, financing expenditure for the government where the RBI (rather than the government) can decide the amount of funding provided to the government, this further means that the monetary policy can be implemented independently of the fiscal policy and the new instruments introduced by RBI give it more flexibility so to better respond to changing macroeconomic environment. Post 1990, various changes have been made by the bank in its structure and operations to deal with the responsibilities thrust on it. In the year 1994 the Board for Financial Supervision was formed and was given that task of regulating, auditing and supervising banks, NBFCs, and financial institutions. Although the body exists under the RBI it is independent in its functioning which is not the case for many Central Banks across the world. In the year 1995, Bhartiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited was formed as a subsidiary of RBI. The reason for its formation was the management of the banks two printing presses so as to handle the supply of currency in the economy when needed. The Financial Markets Committee (FMC) has been established in the year 1997 and is responsible for providing inputs on a daily basis with regards to the same. The Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) has been formed in July 2005 where its role is to advise the bank on the actions that it should take whil e reviewing the monetary policy. Also introduced in the second half of 2005 were the pre consultation meetings and resource management discussions (conducted every year) where apart from the Indian Banks Association, representatives from other banking and financial institutions are also present so as to give their opinions and views regarding which direction the economy is headed before the monetary policy review. Such interactions will make the policy review inclusive and transparent. Another area of change in the recent past is more interaction by the bank with the journalists and the media resulting in better dissemination of information. NEW MONETARY POLICY INSTRUMENTS INTRODUCED AFTER 1990: Apart from the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) and the Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), the bank in the last decade has introduced other instruments such as Open Market Operations (OMO) and Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) to manage short term liquidity requirements for banks, also introduced in 2004 was the Market Stabilization Scheme (MSS) for managing excess liquidity because of inflow of capital into the country from abroad. The portfolio of monetary policy tools that the bank has, gives it the required flexibility to deal with the changing macroeconomic conditions and make monetary policy transmission more efficient and effective. To protect the monetary policy from being impacted by the fiscal policy (fiscal deficit monetization), the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act was passed in the year 2003, this has given more autonomy and control to the bank with respect to the monetary policy. The bank has also given its view with regards to inflation where according to it the upper limit on the inflation should be around 5 %. This has influenced the acceptable level of inflation to come down. The RBI has had the freedom to make changes with respect to the mandatory provisions that banks have to make (such as CRR and SLR which are direct monetary policy tools) and the assignment of risk weights as and when needed. EVOLVING SUPERVISORY ROLE: There has been a gradual shift in the supervisory and regulatory roles that RBI had been assigned. Initially the Central bank was mainly concerned with maintaining solvency of banks operating in the system where it issued directives and guidelines with regards to granting of licenses, the level of reserves to be maintained, specifying interest rates for lending and deposits, requirement of capital. Whereas now the RBI is trying to put in place processes which take into account the countrys economic condition and are in line with those followed by Central banks across the world. The Central Bank has successfully handled the role of a supervisor for the changing Indian banking industry. Earlier Central Bank was more concerned with ensuring that the banks in the system were adhering to the all the safeguards laid down by it. The approach used gave more importance to a banks financial statements and checking for any incidence of non compliance (offsite, onsite inspections, CAMELS method). Under this approach the information that could be obtained from the banks financial statements was used as the criterion by the auditors to form any judgment about the bank. This approach had been sufficient in the recent past when the banks in the system had limited their business to lending out and getting deposits. However post 2000; the banking industry has seen the arrival of technology and the introduction of extremely complex financial instruments or products (for instance Securitization, Derivatives) which have linkages across different markets. This has made the supe rvisory role of the bank even tougher. With the complexity and the risk in the banking system increasing the earlier method of supervising the banks is no longer sufficient. It fails to take an overall view of the banks business. It does not look at how much risk the bank is facing, whether it is able to understand it and is in a position to manage it. Thus the Central bank is now focusing on the Risk Based method for supervising banks. This is still an ongoing process. Through this method the level of risk associated with a particular bank can be estimated and a specific supervisory plan can be developed for the bank. The following diagram shows the steps involved in risk based assessment. SUPERVISION CYCLE: Understanding the bank profile and developing a Risk Matrix based on inputs from offsite monitoring and surveillance, internal capital adequacy assessment, audit reports, market intelligence Planning the supervisory action to be taken, defining its scope and objective and communicating it to the management of the bank Discussion with management, Monitoring action plan, mitigation of risk, required level of supervision Surveillance Review and Evaluation Process, Assessment of Capital, onsite inspection and determining the risk rating The Risk Assessment Matrix combined with the Risk Impact Rating gives the level of supervision needed for the bank. The Risk Assessment Matrix is as given below: Risk Group Weights Risk (Net) 85% Risk(OG) 15% Risk (inherent) Risk (control) Risk associated with governance and oversight Credit Risk (CR) 30% 70% 30% Market Risk (MR) 20% 70% 30% Operational Risk (OR) 20% 70% 30% Liquidity Risk (LR) 20% 70% 30% Pillar 2 Risk (P2) 10% 70% 30% Now for any group say Credit Risk Risk Credit = 0.7 * Risk Inherent +0.3* Risk Control Similarly it can be calculated for all other groups. Now the Risk (Net) = 0.85*(0.3* Risk Credit + 0.2* Risk Market + 0.2 * Risk Operations +0.2 * Risk Liquidity + 0.1 * Risk Pillar2) + 0.15 * Risk OG Risk of Failure = 0.2*(Risk (Net)^2 + Capital available) The risk of failure is arranged on a linear scale from 0 to 4. The score obtained above is then combined with the Impact Rating (again arranged on a scale from 0 to 4) to get the necessary supervisory action to be taken for the bank. The impact rating is dependent on the following factors: Size Interconnectedness Cross Jurisdictional activities Complexity Infrastructure Each factor is again assigned a weight and is further dependent on impact indicators. Risk Impact Index Matrix Risk Failure Impact Rating 16 64 144 256 9 36 81 144 4 16 36 64 1 4 9 16 Risk Impact Index = (Risk Failure)^2*(Impact Rating)^2 For the matrix shown above in column 1 Risk Failure = 1 and Risk Impact varies between 1 to 4, similarly in column 2 Risk Failure = 2 and Risk Impact again varies between 1 to 4. Each bank will lie in one of the boxes and the different colors indicate the type of supervision needed for a particular bank. The type of supervision recommended by the Central Bank is as follows: Color Supervision Needed Baseline Monitoring Close Monitoring Active Oversight Corrective Action The level of monitoring becomes more stringent as we move down the above table. For banks with high risk of failure (say 4) the action is stringent irrespective of the impact rating. Future Outlook Comparison of RBI with other central banks of the world On comparing RBI with other central banks of the world, we see that each bank adopts different tools despite having similar objectives. The difference in the same can be seen in the structure of the balance sheet of the respective countries. Some of the salient features of major world banks are: FED In USA, the central bank controls the fund rates through Open Market Operations or OMO by infusing or absorbing liquidity through the purchase or selling of US treasuries. Other tools used are Discount rate facility and Reserve requirements which help control the banks. FED also introduced certain new tools such as term deposit facility, primary dealer credit facility etc. after the 2008 crisis where poor regulations were attributed to the market crash. USA is thus follows an active market based system. ECB ECB on the other hand follows more of a bank based approach. Though ECB also adopts OMO, it follows a different approach where it produces money and lends it to banks similar to a repo transaction where the preferred collateral is government bonds. This difference can also be attributed to the history of the nation with USA traditionally being a supporter of open market. Hence during the crisis, the FED responded by providing liquidity to entities such as Mutual funds, Primary dealers etc. while ECB s approach was centered on the various central banks. Comparison with RBI On comparison of the above banks with RBI, we clearly see certain similarities as well as differences. India being a developing nation does not hold the power of developed nations and hence RBI uses both Repo transactions as well as OMO purchases to control the financial system of the nation. India predominantly follows a bank based system where the RBI controls the banks and lays down guidelines for its operation. This has helped put in place a strong foundation for the growth of the nation but looking forward with the development of financial markets in India, the RBI would need to ease down regulations in order to help the nation progress. Currently the banking industry in India is unattractive for players to enter due to stiff competition as well as guidelines from the RBI. The comparison of the balance sheet of RBI with other central banks revealed some interesting insights. For the analysis, we compare RBIs balance sheet with balance sheets of central banks of both developed and developing nations. The banks we have taken into consideration are the USAs Federal Reserve, European Central Bank, Swiss National Bank (SNB) and Brazils Banco Central Do Brazil (BCB). For Europe, balance sheet of ECB and 17 other national banks have been combined to give a better idea. This has been named as ESCB or European System of Central Banks. From the diagram we see that central banks of developed economies rely more on bank reserves for creating liquidity (Bank Reserves 2% to 53% in 2011 for Fed). The share in currency during the period has decreased. For RBI we see that there has been no major change during the years. Analysis of the graph above shows that for developed economies, domestic assets form the largest share of assets while for India the share of domestic assets has increased over the years. From the above analysis, we see how having good regulations helped India ride out the 2008 crisis without any major loses while we see significant changes for developed nations. India is thus heading in the right direction in terms of how the central bank is molding itself to propel Indias growth in the future. Bond Market in India The corporate bond market in India is currently underdeveloped with high financing costs acting as a hindrance for firms to raise money through this avenue. On analyzing the financing polices of firms from 2000-01 to 2010-11 we see that of the total debt raised by companies the proportion of debt raised from banks has increased from 14% to 18% while the debt from bond markets has stagnated and rose only marginally from 3.5% to 3.9%. Even though the corporate bond market in India is underdeveloped at the moment, it is clear that in order for India to be a developed nation bonds markets have to be come up in order to ease the capital pressure on the banks. In this context the role of RBI going forward will change. Currently we see that there is lag whenever RBI announces a policy since banks take time in responding to directives like say a cut in interest rate while an active bond market will ensure such lag is eliminated. A cut in interest rate by the RBI will increase the bind prices in the market and thus help in faster policy implementation. ROAD AHEAD From the above analysis we see how the role of RBI has changed over the years and how it fares in comparison to other central banks of the world. The measures taken by the RBI has ensured we have a strong financial foundation which has helped propelled the growth of the nation. Going forward, with the development of financial markets (strong equity market and inevitable development of bond market) RBI should change its role to attract investors and bring in more capital to help fuel the growth of India. RBI thus needs to ease regulation in a way which would make banking attractive and promote the good institutions in the system but at the same time learn from the mistakes committed by developed nations in ensuring we have strong regulations which help prevent potential crisis. The RBI can thus ensure that the late entry of India can thus work in its favor in ensuring that the banking industry keeps pace with the growth of the nation and helps India become a developed nation in the near future.

Applications of Pneumatic Systems in Aircraft

Applications of Pneumatic Systems in Aircraft PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS Introduction When talking about pneumatic system, we need to talk about where the pneumatic system comes from and it comes from a power system, there are three different types of power systems, Hydraulic system Pneumatic system Electrical system Pneumatic systems in Aircrafts Pneumatic systems they are also known as vacuum or pressure systems, the power many functions which are important to the aircraft. Power instrument landing gear, flaps, windows, air conditioning, doors and auto pilot devises are some of many operations powered by pneumatic system. Pneumatic and hydraulic systems are similar and use compressed fluids. Fluid property could be liquids as water, oil, or something that flows. And both liquids and gases flow, since they are considered as fluids; however, there is a great deal of difference in the characteristics of the two. Liquids cannot be compressible; a quart of water still occupies about a quart of space regardless of how hard it is compressed. But gases can be compressed, a quart of air can be compressed into a thimbleful of space. Considering this differences gases and liquids are fluids and can be made to transmit power. The type of unit used to provide pressurized air for pneumatic systems is determined by the system’s air pressure requirements. Components in Pneumatic System Hydraulic systems are sometimes compared to, pneumatic systems but some similarities can only be true in general terms. Such as Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs hand pumps accumulators regulators building normal pressure from engine or electrically driven power pumps But similarities do exist in some components. Air Compressors Simply an air compressor is a Pump that compresses air, its job is raising air pressure to above established pressure for use in pneumatic systems on some aircraft, air compressors have permanently installed and added to recharge air bottles when pressure is used to operate a unit. Several types of compressors that are used for this purpose. Some have three stages of compression, while the others have two, depending on the desired operating pressure. Relief Valves Relief valves are used to prevent damage. They act as a pressure limiting units and prevent bursting lines and blowing out seals from excessive pressures. Control Valves Control valves are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system. It is used to control conditions such aspressure, flow,temperature, andliquidlevel by fully or gradually opening or closing. Control Valve is also called a Final Control Element. Check Valves Check valves are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Check valve is also called a one way valve which allows pressurized air to enter the system, but it prevents backflow of air toward the Compressor when Compressor system is stopped which prevent loss of pressure in the system. Restrictors Restrictor is type of control valve used in pneumatic system. Figure below 1llustrates an orifice type restrictor which has a large inlet port and a small outlet port. The rate of the airflow and the speed of operation of the actuating unit will be reduce by the small outlet port. Variable Restrictor The variable restrictor is a type of speed regulating unit it contains an adjustable needle valve, therefore has threads around top and the lower end. Depending on the direction turned and the needle valve turns the sharp point either into or out the small opening to decrease or to increase the size of the opening. Since air entering the inlet port must be able to pass through this opening before reaching the outlet port adjustment determines the rate of airflow through the restrictor. PRESSURE REGULATOR The pressure regulator is to control the maximum pressure in the system and to off-load the compressor when the system is idle. Oil and Water Trap regulator The oil and water trap is designed to remove any water or oil which may be suspended in the air delivered by the compressor. Air Filters Air filters purpose is to prevent oil vapor, dirt or moisture from passing into the various services. It is installed vertically with the drain plug at the bottom. Some advantages are Prevent system contamination Remove air particulates Clean air is essential to good operation Figure 1. View of Cutaway air filter. Air entering the top of section first flows through the element to remove solid particles. Then flows in a circular motion, where centrifugal force separates water from the air stream, andthen the water falls to the filters sump. Storage Bottles Storage bottles act as a reservoir of compressed air which operates all services to pneumatic system. Compressors main use is to build up system pressure when it falls below normal pressure level. The size of the bottles are taken from the volume of actuators and pipelines determines required for the normal and emergency pneumatic services. Storage bottles are generally made of steel, and may use a wire wound construction for maximum strength. Light ally or fiberglass materials may be other typs of material wich will be used. Air Pump Heart of pneumatic system is pressure or vacuum air pump. Which is usually engine driven) There are two basic types: †¢Wet air pumps which use engine oil to lubricate pump internally †¢Dry air pumps which is more common more common have graphite vanes inside pump casing self-lubricate as pump rotates High pressure systems High pressure system is driven by an engine driven compressor feeds air from an unloading valve through the system keeping the pressure. The pressure around this system is 3000 psi but this will vary from manufacturer to another. There will usually also be a ground valve on the aircraft system to enable to pressurize when the main engines are not running. In high pressure systems air is normally stored in a metal bottles at pressures from 1000-3000 psi, depending on the particular aircraft system. Some high pressure systems are Oxygen lines Flaps Breaks Landing gear Low pressure systems Low pressure systems are pressurized up to 1000 psi and uses an engine driven vane type pump. They are may be used to drive Air cons door seals de-ice boots small low power applications Medium-Pressure Systems A medium-pressure pneumatic system usually does not include an air bottle. Instead, it draws air from the compressor section of a turbine engine. Which is generally around 50 to 150 psi This is often called bleed air process and is used to provide pneumatic power for engine starts, engine deicing, wing deicing, and in some cases, it provides hydraulic power to the aircraft systems but only if the hydraulic system is equipped with an air-driven hydraulic pump. Engine bleed air is also used to pressurize the reservoirs of the hydraulic system. Emergency Backup Systems Many aircraft use a high pressure pneumatic back up system source to extend the landing gear or actuate the brakes. And if main hydraulic braking system fails. Nitrogen gas is not directly used to actuate the landing gear or brake system units but applies the pressurized nitrogen to move hydraulic fluid to the actuator. This process is called pneudraulics. Nitrogen Bottles There are two bottles of nitrogen stored for emergency use, mostly bottles located on each side of nose wheel well. Actuation of an outlet valve released by Nitrogen from the bottles. Once depleted, maintenance personnel must recharge the bottles. Fully serviced pressure will be approximately 3,100 psi at 70  °F/21  °C, which is only enough for one extension of the landing gear. PNEUMATIC SYSTEM The illustrator below is a typical full pneumatic system as is used on a twin engine commuter transport aircraft. Each procedure is shown below in dot points Each of the two compressors is a four stage piston type pump, driven from the accessory gearbox of the two turboprop engines. Air is taken into the first stage through an air duct. It is compressed, then passes to the other three stages. From the fourth stage the discharge air is routed through an intercooler and a bleed valve to the unloading valve. The bleed valve is kept closed by engine oil pressure and in an event of a loss of an engine lubricating oil, the valve will open and relieve the pump of any load. The unloading valve maintains pressure between 2,900 and 3,300 psi in the system. When the pressure rises to 3,300 psi a check valve traps it and dumps the output of the pump air overboard. The pump is directed back into the system when the system pressure drops to 2,900 psi. The shuttle valve which is between the compressor and the main system makes it possible to charge the system from a ground source. When the pressure from the external source is higher than the external source of the compressor, when the engine is not running, the shuttle slides over and freezers the compressor. Compressed air system have moisture and this will condense and freeze when the pressure of the air is dropped for actuation because of this every bit of water must be removed from the air. Then a separator collects the water that is in the air on a baffle and holds it until the system is shut down. When the separator’s pressure drops below 450 psi, a drain valve operates and all of the accumulated water is blown overboard. Then an electric heater prevents the water collected in the separator from freezing. After the air leaves the moisture separator, about 98% of its water removed, it passes through a desiccant, or chemical drier, to remove the last traces of moisture. Before the air enters the actual operating system it is filtered through a 10 micron sintered metal filter. In the right engine nacelle a back pressure valve is installed. This is essentially a pressure relief valve in the supply line that does not open until the pressure from the compressor or ground charging system is above 1700 psi and this make sure that the moisture separator will operate most efficiently. The left side where there is no back pressure valve can be connected if it is required to operate the system from an external source of less than 1700 psi. There are three air storage bottles in this type of aircraft system, A 750 cu. Inch bottle for the main system A 180 cu. Inch bottle for normal brake operation A 180 cu. Inch bottle for emergency operation of the landing gear and brakes. Then come the mutually operated isolation valve which allows a technician to close off the air supply so that the system can be serviced without having to discharge the storage bottle. Most of the components in this system operate with pressure of 1000 psi so a pressure reducing valve is installed between the isolation valve and the supply manifold for normal operation of the landing gear passenger door drag brake propeller brake nose wheel steering Since this valve reduces the pressure to 1000 psi it also serves as a backup pressure relief valve. The emergency system stores compressed air under the full system pressure of 3,300 psi and supplies it for landing gear emergency extension. EMERGENCY BRAKE SYSTEM In a failure of the hydraulic system, the pilot of a large aircraft can operate a pneumatic valve on the instrument panel and direct compressed air or nitrogen into the brake system. When the pilot turns the handle, a regulator is adjusted that controls the air pressure to the brakes. When sufficient pressure reaches the brake line, the piston moves up against the force of the control spring and shuts off the inlet valve. The compression of the spring determines the amount of pressure supplied to the brake. When the brake handle is rotated in the direction to release the brakes, the air is exhausted overboard. Then rather than allowing compressed air to enter the wheel cylinder, which would require the entire brake system to be bled of air, the emergency air may be directed into a transfer tube. The air forces hydraulic fluid from the tube into the brake system. Emergency operation of the brakes is also achieved in many aircraft by the use of compressed air. When the pilot is sure that there is no hydraulic pressure to the brakes, the pneumatic brake handle, located on the left instrument panel, can be rotated. Clockwise rotation of this handle increases the brake pressure. Nitrogen pressure released by this control handle forces hydraulic fluid in the transfer tube into the main wheel brakes through shuttle valves. When the brake handle is rotated counterclockwise pressure is released and the nitrogen is exhausted overboard. http://www.engineerstudent.co.uk/uni_directional_flow_control_valve_symbols.html http://navyaviation.tpub.com/14018/css/14018_285.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_valve http://mech-engineer.blogspot.com.au/2009/05/drawworks-brake-system-training-course.html http://www.aliexpress.com/airbrush-compressor-regulator_reviews.html http://www.airid.com/high-volume-drain-valve.html http://basicaerospace.blogspot.com.au/2013/01/aircraft-pneumatic-system-for-beginners.html